Self-Esteem

Morris Rosenberg defined self-esteem as an overall attitude toward oneself — positive or negative — and created the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 1965. This ten-item scale remains the most widely used instrument in the world for measuring global self-esteem. Rosenberg linked low self-esteem to anxiety, depression, and difficulty in interpersonal relationships, laying the foundation for decades of subsequent research.

However, Roy Baumeister and his colleagues challenged the notion that high self-esteem is universally beneficial. Their comprehensive 2003 review showed that high self-esteem does not cause better academic or professional outcomes but is often a consequence of success. Furthermore, they warned that inflated self-esteem can be associated with narcissism and aggression, particularly when threatened. This prompted a rethinking of educational programmes focused exclusively on boosting self-esteem.

Kristin Neff proposed self-compassion as a healthier alternative to the pursuit of high self-esteem. Self-compassion involves treating oneself with kindness in the face of failure, recognising shared human vulnerability, and maintaining a balanced awareness of one's emotions. Unlike self-esteem, self-compassion does not require feeling superior to others nor depend on external evaluations. Research shows that self-compassion consistently predicts psychological well-being without the negative side effects associated with inflated self-esteem.